Sleep and sleeping sickness

Sleep and sleeping sickness

Sleep is a period of rest during which the sleeper loses awareness of his or her surroundings. Sleep, unlike a coma, is easily ended. A sleeping person or animal can be awakened quickly by, for example, a loud noise or a bright flash of light. All human beings and many kinds of animals must have a certain amount of daily sleep at regular intervals.

What happens during sleep. When a person falls asleep, all activity decreases and the muscles relax. The heartbeat and breathing rate slow down. The person slowly becomes less aware of what may be happening all around.

A sleeping person changes the position of the entire body at least a dozen times during about eight hours of slumber. The head, arms, or legs are moved even more often.

Scientists study sleep with an instrument called an electroencephalograph (see Electroencephalograph). Whether a person is awake or asleep, the brain gives off electrical waves. An electroencephalograph measures and records these waves. The brain of an awake, relaxed person gives off about 10 small waves a second.

As a person falls deeply into sleep, the brain sends out slower but larger and larger waves. The slowest, largest waves occur during the first two or three hours of a period of sleep. During slow-wave sleep, mental ac­tivity slows down but does not stop. People awakened from slow-wave sleep can often recall unclear thoughts that they had while asleep.

Periods of small fast waves, similar to those of an awake person, occur at intervals during sleep. During these periods of fast brain wave activity, the sleeper's eyes move rapidly as though they were watching the events of a dream. A sleeper who is awakened during such a period probably will recall dreaming and re­member details of the dream. Sleep during these peri­ods is called dreaming sleep or REM (Rapid Eye Move­ment) sleep. An eight-hour period of sleep includes from three to five periods of dreaming sleep. The dreaming sleep periods last from 5 to 30 minutes each and occur every 90 to 100 minutes. The later dream peri­ods last longer than the earlier ones.

Human sleep patterns. Most adults sleep from 7 to 8 hours every night. Some people, especially those who work at night, sleep during the daytime. Some adults may need as little as 6 hours sleep a night—or even less. But others may require 9 hours sleep—or even more. Most people tend to need slightly less sleeps as they grow older. A person who slept 8 hours a night at 30 years of age may need only 7 hours of sleep at the age of 60.

A person's sleeping patterns develop gradually. New born babies sleep for brief periods throughout the day and night. Their sleep periods include dreaming sleep. By the age of 2 or 3 months, babies have learned to sleep through the night, though they nap for periods during the daytime. By the age of 6, most children have given up daytime naps. Four-year-olds average from 10 to 14 hours of sleep a day, and 10-year-olds average from 9 to 12 hours.

Sleep among animals. Scientists study sleeping animals by the same methods that they study sleeping human beings. Among the vertebrates (animals with backbones), only reptiles, birds, and mammals experi­ence true sleep, with changes in brain wave patterns. Most kinds of reptiles do not have dreaming sleep periods, and most kinds of birds have only very brief ones. All mammals have periods of dreaming sleep and also periods of slow-wave sleep.

Different species of reptiles, birds, and mammals have different sleep patterns. Some sleep for many short periods every day, but others sleep for one long period. Animals that are nocturnal (active at night) sleep during the daytime. Some mammals, such as cattle, can sleep standing up. But they dream only while lying down.

The other two groups of vertebrates—fish and amphibians—have periods of what might be called sleep. During these periods, they become less aware than at other times of what is happening around them. But scientists have found no evidence of brain wave changes that suggest sleep among such animals.

Insects, spiders, and other invertebrates (animals without backbones) have daily periods of reduced activity. But invertebrates do not show a sudden decrease in response to their surroundings. No brain changes have been found to occur during their rest periods.

What happens without sleep. People deprived of sleep lose energy and become quick-tempered. After two days without sleep, a person finds that lengthy concentration becomes difficult. Through pure determina­tion, a person may perform tasks well for short periods but is easily distracted. Many mistakes are made, espe­cially in routine tasks, and attention slips at times. Even "sleepless" person experiences periods of dozing off for a few seconds or more. The person falls completely asleep unless kept active continuously.

People who go without sleep for more than three days have great difficulty thinking, seeing, and hearing clearly. Some have periods of hallucinations, during which they see things that do not really exist. They also confuse daydreams with real life and often lose track of their thoughts in the middle of a sentence while speak­ing to someone.

Human beings have gone without sleep for up to 11 days. But people who have stayed awake so long lose contact with reality. They become suspicious and fearful

of others. For example, they may believe that a doctor is an undertaker who has come to bury them, or that the food they are eating has been poisoned.

The need for sleep. Sleep restores energy to the body, particularly to the brain and nervous system. Peo­ple require both slow-wave sleep and dreaming sleep. Extra sleep of either kind does not make up for a lack of the other. Slow-wave sleep may help especially in build­ing protein and restoring the control of the brain and nervous system over the muscles, glands, and other body systems. Dreaming sleep may be especially impor­tant for maintaining such mental activities as learning, reasoning, and emotional adjustment.

Scientists are still seeking answers to many questions about the need for sleep. They do not know, for exam­ple, why human beings cannot simply rest, as insects do. Nor have they discovered exactly how sleep restores vigour to the body. Related articles: Baby (Sleeping         conditions), Hibernation, Nightmare, Insomnia, Sleepwalking, Dream, Narcolepsy, and Snoring.

Sleeping sickness is a disease that attacks the nerv­ous system and often results in a prolonged sleep. It af­fects human beings and other vertebrates (animals with backbones) and is usually fatal if untreated. Sleeping sickness occurs only in Africa and is a serious health problem there for both humans and animals. Its effect makes livestock rearing impossible in some areas of the continent. The disease is also referred to as African sleeping sickness or African trypanosomiasis.

Cause. Sleeping sickness is caused by several spe­cies of single-celled parasites called trypanosomes. These organisms have a wormlike shape and a whiplike extension, called a flagellum, at one end. The flageilum also extends along one side of the body to form a struc­ture called an undulating membrane. A trypanosome moves by waving or whipping the membrane.

The trypanosomes that cause sleeping sickness in hu­mans have the scientific names T. rhodesiense and T. gambiense. (The T. stands for Trypanosoma.) The trypa­nosomes are transmitted by the tsetse fly, an insect that lives along lake shores and riverbanks in Africa. The fly becomes infected with trypanosomes while feeding on the blood of an already infected human or animal. The trypanosomes multiply in the insect's stomach, then pass to the salivary glands. A person becomes in­fected when bitten by an infected fly.

Sleepingsickness in livestock results from in­fection by other trypano­somes, including T. brucei and T. congolense. The trypanosomes are gener­ally transmitted by tsetse flies or other biting insects. One species is transmitted by an infected animal during mating.

Symptoms and diagnosis. The speed at which sleeping sickness develops in people varies with the type of trypanosome involved. In general, T. rhode­siense produces symptoms that progress more rapidly than those caused by T. gambiense. Most cases of sleep­ing sickness begin with fever, headache, and chills. These symptoms are followed by swelling of the lymph nodes, skin rash, and weakness. In severe cases, the trypanosomes infect the central nervous system, result­ing in uncontrollable sleep, coma, and death.

Doctors diagnose sleeping sickness by examining a sample of the patient's blood, spinal fluid, or lymph. In patients who have the disease, the sample contains tryp­anosomes, which can be seen under a microscope. Early diagnosis of sleeping sickness is important because prompt treatment can eliminate the parasites and pre­vent permanent damage to nerve tissues.

Treatment and prevention. Doctors use a variety of drugs to control sleeping sickness in people. The drug suramin is commonly given in the early stages of the disease. If treatment starts before the central nervous system becomes infected, the chances for recovery are excellent. Treatment of sleeping sickness in its later stages is less successful. In addition, trypanosomes tend to develop resistance to the drugs used.

Scientists have done much work on finding methods to control sleeping sickness and its carriers. In some parts of Africa, insecticide sprays have proved effective in eliminating tsetse fly populations. Other control ef­forts include the use of radiation to make male tsetse flies sterile and therefore unable to reproduce. See Tsetse fly and Insomnia.

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Sex is what makes males and females different from each other. It also attracts them to each other and in­volves deep feelings and desires. Through sex, a man and a woman may become interested in each other, fall in love, get married, and have children. Higher animals and plants produce their own kind, generation after generation, by means of sexual reproduction. For human beings, however, sex involves much more than reproduction. It has natural and important biological, psychological, and sociological effects on their lives. (Adolescent, personality psychology and human).

Everyone is aware of sex because it influences every­one's personality and way of living. At the moment of birth, a baby is recognized as a boy or a girl. This recognition has an effect on the way the baby is raised. Throughout their lives, males and females are expected to behave in certain different ways. Because sex usually involves much deeper personal feelings and desires than other areas of life, it is not dis­cussed so openly as are other areas. As a result, many people are confused and bothered by their sexual feel­ings. Some view sex as something to laugh at, or to joke about. But throughout history, philosophers, scholars, and religious leaders have thought seriously about sex and its importance to individuals and to society. Most religions and cultures have developed moral standards concerning sex. Because sex is such a powerful force, it is used in many ways to attract attention. Both males and females use various styles of clothing and grooming to make themselves attractive to one another. People know that "sex sells." A film, television show, book, or article or story that deals with sexual interests is likely to be popu­lar. Many advertisements on TV and in newspapers and magazines use sexual appeals to attract attention to their products. This article discusses sex as it is related to the lives of children, teenagers, and adults. For a description of the methods by which human beings and various kinds of animals and plants reproduce, see the arti­cles on reproduction.

Males and females

(Boys and girls, Puberty and Sex Roles) 

Boys and girls. Throughout childhood, the most ob­vious physical difference between the sexes is in the ap­pearance of the genitals (sex organs). A boy has a finger- shaped organ called a penis between his legs. Behind the penis is a small sac called the scrotum, which holds two oval-shaped organs, the testicles. A girl's external reproductive organs are called the vulva. The outer parts of the vulva are small folds of flesh that cover the opening to the vagina, a narrow passage that leads to other female sex organs—including the uterus and the ovaries— inside the body. In later years, after the sex or­gans have developed completely, a boy can become a father, and a girl can become a mother.

Puberty is the period of rapid growth that marks the end of childhood and the beginning of physical and sex­ual maturity (full development). During puberty, the bod­ies of boys and girls change noticeably, as do many of their feelings. At the beginning of puberty, most girls are taller and grow faster than boys of the same age. After boys begin their period of rapid growth, they soon catch up. Many young people worry because some of their friends are growing and maturing more quickly than they are. But differences in the age at which puberty begins and in the rate of development during puberty are entirely nor­mal. Some boys and girls mature several years earlier or later than others of their age. Whether a girl matures slowly or rapidly, she and other girls go through the same changes as they enter womanhood. She grows taller, and her breasts become larger and round out. Her hips become wider, and hair grows under her arms and around her vulva. The wid­ened hips will make it possible for her to give birth. The enlarged breasts will allow her to feed her babies milk from her own body. One of the changes that takes place during a girl's growth to womanhood is the beginning of menstrua­tion. Menstruation, a monthly discharge of blood and tissue from the vagina, is a normal part of a woman's life Most girls start to menstruate when they are about 12 years old, but many begin at an earlier or later age than this. See Menstruation. As a boy goes through puberty, he becomes taller and heavier. His shoulders broaden, he gets stronger, and his voice becomes deeper. Hair grows on his face, under his arms, around his genitals, and on other parts of his body. Most boys consider the appearance of hair on the face one of the most important steps to man­hood. When a boy nears sexual maturity, his sex organs be­come larger and he may experience nocturnal emis­sions, also called "wet dreams." Nocturnal emissions occur when a whitish fluid called semen is released through the penis while a boy or a man is sleeping. They are a natural way of releasing semen. For both boys and girls, the development of the sex organs is accompanied by noticeable sexual feelings and tensions. Sometimes these tensions are relieved by masturbating (rubbing or handling the genitals), in the past, many people believed that masturbation caused various mental and physical problems, including insan­ity and pimples. These ideas have been proved false. But many people believe that masturbation can be morally wrong because it is a misuse of sexual powers. Mastur­bation can become an emotional problem if it causes people to feel anxious, guilty, or ashamed.

Sex roles. Most men and women differ from each other not only in anatomy, but in behaviour and inter­ests as well. Some of these differences are biologically determined. For example, research indicates that males are more aggressive than females largely because of the male sex hormone testosterone. But many nonanatomical differences appear to be based on sex roles that are learned by every individual. People are born male or fe­male, but they learn to be masculine or feminine. Every society has certain common beliefs regarding the ways each sex should behave. In Western society, for example, women have traditionally been considered more tender and sympathetic than men. Men have been regarded as more competitive and less emotional than women. Most people traditionally associate women with such careers as homemaking and nursing, and men with such vocations as business and politics. Individuals receive informal but powerful impres­sions of the roles they are expected to play as boys or girls and as men or women. This learning of sex roles begins in infancy. In many cases, members of the family and friends play more roughly with baby boys than with baby girls. Little girls are cuddled and handled more gently than are little boys in many homes. As children grow, their families provide informal lessons in masculinity and femininity. They encourage a child to behave in ways they feel appropriate for his or her sex, and they discourage any conduct considered inappropriate. For example, parents may reward a daughter's interest in sewing and housekeeping with praise and encourage­ment. But they might actively discourage a son who shows similar interests. Both boys and girls learn sex roles by identifying with the parent—or some other person important to them—of ^e same sex. Young girls copy their mother's activities and behaviour, and young boys imitate their father's manner and interests. Many experts believe that chil­dren have a firm sexual identity by the age of 3. They know much about the roles considered appropriate for their own and opposite sex. After entering school, other children provide further impressions of sex roles that are acceptable or unacceptable. During adolescence and adulthood, people learn what is expected of their own and the other sex at work and play, with the same sex and in mixed groups. Since the 1960's, sex roles in many Western nations have become increasingly flexible. For example, many people no longer regard fear or tenderness as unmanly emotions. Similarly, a woman can be assertive or com­petitive and still be considered feminine. Men and women can also hold jobs that were once considered inappropriate for their sex.

Portrait of Mid-adult Happy Couple Smiling Together

Sexual relationships

(Boy-girl relationships and love)

As boys and girls become aware of their developing sexuality, they may be disturbed about the changes they are experiencing. At the beginning of puberty, young people may associate mainly with members of their own sex, who are going through the same changes. As they become more mature and surer of themselves, they be­come increasingly interested in members of the oppo­site sex. During adolescence, boys and girls gradually learn howto get along in more grown-up ways with people of both sexes and of all ages. They adjust to the bodily changes they experienced during puberty. They learn to become more independent and to make their own deci­sions. And they discover new ways of developing rela­tionships with the other sex.

Boy-girl relationships. In many countries, boys and girls grow up together and become accustomed to one another long before they reach adolescence. Through­out childhood, they play together, go to school to­gether, and take part in many of the same activities to­gether. During the teen years, boy-girl relationships become much more important and more complicated. As teenagers mature emotionally, sexually, and socially, they seek closer, more personal relationships with members of the opposite sex.  In the early teens, when boys and girls first begin to take a special interest in each other, they usually get to­gether in groups. Meeting places may include schools and churches. Young people enjoy games, swimming, club meetings, various projects, and other group activi­ties. These group activities give boys and girls an oppor­tunity to discover themselves in different situations and with a variety of persons of both sexes. Such social ex­periences help individuals become more sure of them­selves, and prepare them for the next step in boy-girl re­lationships. The age at which boys and girls start to go out to­gether, like the time it takes them to mature, varies greatly between individuals. Many teenagers will start the relationship by going out with another couple or a group of couples. Going together as a couple involves many responsi­bilities and requires maturity on the part of both the boy and girl. Generally, the boy asks the girl to go out with him. He is usually expected to set the time and place for the occasion, assume responsibility for the girl. Both the boy and the girl are expected to dress appropriately and to be courteous and pleasant. They also are expected to conduct themselves in ways that would be approved by their families, their friends, and themselves. As adolescents mature and become more at ease w ith one another, their emotional and physical attraction to members of the other sex increases. Both boys and girls want their appearance and actions to make them attrac­tive to one another. They enjoy doing ordinary things to­gether that bring them close to one another. A boy and girl get a sense of being desirable when they look into each other's eyes, laugh together, hold hands, and sit close to each other. Kissing has special importance be­cause both boys and girls want more intimate contact with one another. There comes a time when the boy, or the girl, or both, want closer physical contact than hold­ing hands and kissing. It is important that teenagers understand and manage their sexual desires. When they do, they are likely to have enjoyable and rewarding relationships with mem­bers of the opposite sex. If they do not, they could be­come more physically and emotionally involved than they intend to or are ready to. Sexual desires can lead to sexual intercourse, the closest and most intimate form of physical contact. Sex­ual intercourse can start the process of reproduction. It could lead to an unmarried girl becoming pregnant. Most teenagers, both boys and girls, are physically able to have children. But few teenagers are ready to take on the responsibilities of marriage or parenthood. Most un­married young people who have babies have been car­ried away by their sexual feelings and by emotional de­sires they have not controlled. Sexual intercourse also involves important moral standards and deep personal feelings. It can cause serious moral, social, and psycho­logical problems for young people. The responsibility for controlling sexual desires belongs to both the boy and the girl.

Love. After two people get to know each other well, they may feel they are in love. They begin to understand one another better than ever before. They enjoy being together as much as possible in many different situa­tions and moods. They may come to care deeply for one another when each wants to cherish and protect the other. They enjoy doing things for one another, and find pleasure in sharing things and in discussing their feel­ings with each other. There are many forms of love feelings. One of the questions a person must face is whether he or she is re­ally in love at a particular time. For example, some peo­ple mistake physical desire for love. But love based mainly on sexual attraction does not last long. A normal young person may fall in and out of love several times before establishing a lasting relationship.

Happy family sitting in the garden

Marriage and the family

When a man and woman love one another, they usu­ally want to get married and spend the rest of their lives together. But a successful marriage involves more than just being in love. Being married and raising children re­quires a couple to be mature enough to accept and enjoy new responsibilities. They must be ready to make many adjustments in their ways of living, and be finan­cially able to support themselves. A husband and wife express their love for each other in many ways. One of the most intimate ways is through sexual intercourse. During intercourse, a man and woman lie close together and the man's penis is placed in the woman's vagina. This is usually psychologically and physically very pleasurable for both persons. During intercourse, semen is released from the penis into the vagina. The semen contains millions of tiny male sex cells called sperm. Sometimes, but not always, a sperm fertilizes (unites with a female sex cell called an egg. If this happens, a baby starts to develop inside the female and is born about nine months later. Many cou­ples want to prevent some pregnancies in order to reg­ulate the birth of their children. They plan their family by using some method of birth control (see Birth control). Some couples choose to remain childless. With the birth of children, a couple's life changes greatly. A baby is helpless and depends on its parents for the love and care it needs. The child is best assured of healthy, happy development if the parents love each other and want to have a baby. So it is especially impor­tant that love, sex, and family living go together.

Sexual intercourse between people who are not mar­ried to each other is considered morally wrong by many religious groups and by many people. Sexual relation­ships outside marriage can result in feelings of guilt and other psychological problems for the people involved. They can also result in the birth of an unwanted child.

Changing attitudes about sex

Until the mid-1900's, most people in Western coun­tries did not openly talk about sex. The subject was masked in giggles, blushes, and "dirty stories." Today, however, sex is much more frequently discussed as a normal part of human life. Newspapers and television report on research into human sexuality, and books and magazine articles discuss the pleasures and problems of sexual situations. The increased openness about sex encourages many parents to talk about it freely with their children. Large numbers of schools and churches offer courses in sex education for children and other young people of vari­ous ages. Marriage counselling and family life education help parents feel at ease with their own sexual interests and those of their children. People have become freer to express their real feel­ings than they once were. Both men and women feel less restricted by traditional concepts of masculinity and femininity. Members of both sexes and people of all ages have more freedom to enjoy one another. Sex, when properly understood and channelled, can bring great satisfaction to human beings. But most peo­ple agree that this powerful natural force must be con­trolled to assure fulfilment not only of the individual, but of society itself. Related articles: Adolescent, Homosexuality, Marriage, Prostitution, Transsexualism, and Reproduction.

Sex education

Sex education is the study of the characteristics of being a male or a female. Such characteristics make up a person's sexuality. Sexuality is an important aspect of the lives of human beings, and almost all people—including children—want to know about it. Traditionally, children have received information about sexuality from their parents. They also may learn about sexuality through their church, their friends, their doctor, or other sources. But many young people fail to receive adequate sex education from the traditional sources. In addition, youngsters often get incorrect in­formation about sexuality from their friends. Many people believe that sex education in schools as­sures children of correct and complete information about sexuality. But others insist that children should learn about sexuality only from their parents. The dispute over sex education - Surveys show that many parents, psychologists, and teachers favour some kind of sex education programme in schools. Oppo­nents of such programmes argue that children should learn about sexuality only from their parents. They feei that children need moral guidance when being taught about sexuality, and that only parents can provide this guidance. Some opponents of sex education charge that it causes young people to think about sexuality too much. Other opponents believe that few teachers have the proper training to teach children about sexuality. People who favour sex education in schools declare that parents have not done a good job of teaching about sexuality. They fear that children often receive false in­formation from their friends and from magazines, the cinema, and television. Therefore, they argue, school is the best place for children to receive correct and com­plete information about sexuality. Most supporters agree that sex education teachers need special training. See also Sex; Mary S. Calderone.

Sexually Transmitted Disease

Sexually transmitted disease, also called STD, is any disease spread primarily through intimate sexual ac­tivity. Many bacteria, viruses, and other kinds of germs cause STD's. STD's were once commonly called venerea! diseases. They are a major health problem throughout the world. How STD's are transmitted. STD's are transmitted almost entirely through intimate sexual contact with an infected person. STD's are rarely, if ever, transmitted through contaminated objects, such as eating utensils, towels, and toilet seats; or through casual contact, such as coughing, sneezing, or swimming in the same swim­ming pool. AIDS and a few other STD's may be transmit­ted through direct contact with infected blood (see AIDS). All of the common STD's can be transmitted from an infected pregnant woman to her baby. Transmission may occur as the fetus develops within the uterus or during childbirth. Factors in the spread of STD's. In general, people who begin sexual activity at an early age, have many sex partners, or have sex with high-risk individuals—such as prostitutes—are at high risk of infection. The frequency and duration of intercourse with an infected partner also influence a person's risk of infection with an STD.

In the United States, researchers have documented five social changes that have played a part in the spread of STD's since the 1960's. These changes are (1) a dra­matic increase in premarital sexual intercourse, (2) a de­crease in the average age at which people first have in­tercourse, (3) increased acceptance of having more than one sex partner, (4) a rise in the divorce rate, and (5) a fall in the remarriage rate. All these changes have contrib­uted to an increase in the number of sexually active peo­ple at risk of being infected with an STD. Within any society, there are STD-infected individuals whose sexual behaviour makes them highly likely to transmit the STD to others. These individuals, known as high frequency transmitters, tend to be sexually active without regard to the risk of transmitting the STD. They also tend to delay seeking treatment for their illness. So­cial circumstances such as poverty and lack of education may influence the number of such individuals in a com­munity. Biological factors also can affect a person's risk of STD infection. Individuals with genital ulcers may be more vulnerable than others to infection by the AIDS virus. In addition, some STD-causing organisms become resistant to the drugs used for treatment. For example, some forms of the bacterium that causes gonorrhoea have become resistant to penicillin and other antibiotics commonly used to treat this infection (see Gonorrhoea.)

Diagnosis and treatment. Doctors use a number of methods to diagnose STD's. The first step usually in­volves identifying the patient's symptoms as those of an STD. Doctors may then do a variety of laboratory tests to confirm the presence of the infecting organisms. For ex­ample, they may perform a blood test to identify sub­stances called antibodies, which the body produces in response to disease-causing organisms. Doctors prescribe antibiotics to treat a variety of STD's. Such STD's, which include chlamydia, gonor­rhoea, and syphilis, can be cured easily if the drugs are prescribed early in the course of the illness. However, failure to receive prompt treatment can lead to serious, even life-threatening, complications. For example, un­treated syphilis can lead to heart or brain damage. Viral STD's, including herpes and AIDS, are incurable. Patients may carry these infections for many years with­out developing symptoms. In addition, in herpes and certain other viral STD's, patients may experience symp­toms that go away, only to recur months or years later. Doctors can prescribe drugs that reduce the severity of symptoms when they appear, and may prevent or delay the development or recurrence of symptoms.

Prevention and control. The most effective strate­gies to stay free of an STD are to abstain from intimate sexual contact altogether, or to limit such contact to one uninfected partner who, in turn, has no other sexual partners. People can significantly reduce the risk of in­fection by using condoms or other protective measures during sex and by avoiding sex with prostitutes and other high-risk individuals. Controlling the spread of chlamydia, syphilis, and other bacterial STD's requires early treatment of infected individuals and their sexual partners. Many hospi­tals and community health centres have special clinics for the treatment of STD's. Individuals who believe they may have an STD should see a doctor immediately. They should also stop all sexual activity until told by a doctor that they are not at risk of infecting others. See also AIDS; Chlamydia; Gonorrhoea; Herpes, Genital; Pelvic inflammatory disease; Syphilis; Disease, (table: Some communicable diseases).

Sex ratio

Sex ratio is the proportion of males to females in a population. Studies of birth records for human beings and other animals indicate that many species have more individuals of one sex than of the other. Among human beings, for example, 103 to 107 boys are born for every 100 girls. In the adult population, however, women out­number men because women, on the average, live longer. Horses give birth to about 98 males for every 100 females. Chickens have about 95 males to every 100 fe­males.

Etiquette

Paparazzo definition - a freelance
photographer, especially one who takes
candid  pictures of celebrities for publication. 
Sometimes, he or she pursues celebrities for 
the purpose of taking candid photographs.

Etiquette is a code behavior that helps people get on with one another. Many people think of etiquette as a list of rigid rules for the proper dress for a party or such activities as conducting a wedding or setting a table for a formal dinner party. But etiquette covers a much wider range of behavior. Etiquette means good manners and provides guidelines for all our relationships with others.

Celebrities Hide from Paparazzi

Each culture has its own system of etiquette. Behavior that is proper in one culture may be improper in another. In Japan, for example, people take off their shoes before entering a house. But in most Western countries guests would be considered impolite if they removed their shoes. In some contries, it is impolite for a man to walk a head of a woman. In others, the woman must always walk behind her husband as a mark of submission to his authority.

Etiquette may also vary considerably within a culture. For instance, people who live in large cities have various customs that differ from those of residents of small towns. In large cities, many people do not know their neighbours and visit even their friends only if invited. In small towns, most people know and often drop in on one another and generally visit new neighbours to welcome them to the community.

Ibiza in photos (Landscape) - Ibiza is an island 
in the Mediterranean Sea 79 km off the coast of the city
 of Valencia in Spain. It is the third largest of the Balearic Islands, 
an autonomous community of Spain. With Formentera, 
it is one of the two Pine Islands or Pityuses.

How etiquette develops and changes

The origins of etiquette. As prehistoric people began to interact with one another, they learned to have in ways that made life easier and more pleasant. Any manners that developed had a practical purpose. For example, we two men met they may have extended their right hands and shaken hands to show that they were not carrying weapons. A handshake served as a display of friendship. It is still a gesture of courtesy and friendship, through the practical reason for it has disappeared.

Early civilizations, such as those of ancient Greece and Rome, developed rules for proper social conduct. Much of today’s formal etiquette originated in the French royal court during the 1600’s ad 1700’s. The nobles who lived at court drew up a list of PROPER SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR and called it AN ETIQUETTE.  This word came from an old French word meaning ticket. The code of behavior soon spread to other European courts and eventually was adopted by the upper classes throughout the Western world.

Playa del Silencio, Asturias - Spain
has over 5,000 miles of coastline,
much of which is graced with
beautiful beaches. Though the tourists
flock to  the Costa Blanca and the
Costa del Sol, there are beautiful beaches
all over Spain (well, where there's
coastline, anyway!).

A special form of etiquette called protocol has existed for as long as etiquette itself. Protocol is observed at social functions attended by government official, military officers, foreign diplomats and high-level people in business and the professions. Protocol ensures that these men and women receive the respect due to their office or position. For example, it specifies that they be seated at dinner in a particular order according to their rank or status. Protocol also includes rules and usages to be observed in speaking or writing to such people to be observed in speaking or writing to such people.

Etiquette today is followed by people in all classes of society, not just royalty and the rich. Throughout the 1900’s, etiquette has changed frequently in response to social changes and technological developments. Today, etiquette is concerned less with rigid rules governing conduct at formal occasions than with providing general guidelines for courteous, considerate behavior.

Celebrities Hide from Paparazzi

New sets of rules have developed for using such inventions as the car and telephone. These inventions have also changed many old social customs. In many cases, for example, a person uses the telephone to invite guests to a party. In the past, written invitations would have been sent.

The changing roles of men and women in modern society, particularly in the Western world, have greatly affected etiquette. Many traditional rules of etiquette involving relations between men and women were based on sharply contrasting sex roles. Women were assumed to be week and in need of protection. Men were expected to behave protectively and with special politeness toward women. Today, however, increasing numbers of men and women relate to each other as equals. Social changes have led to more relaxed and natural relations between men and women.

Pictures speak thousand of words

Books on etiquette

The first known guide to courteous behavior was written by Ptah-hotep, a high government official in ancient Egypt. His work, The Instructions of Ptah-hotep, dates from about 2400 BC. One of the earliest European etiquette books, A Treatise on Courtesy, was written by an Italian named Tommasino di Circlaria (or Thomasin von Zerclare). It appeared about AD 1200. In the early 1500’s, an Italian writer named Baldassare Castiglione wrote The Book of the Courtier. This work set forth standards of conduct for people who belonged to the upper classes.  

Paparazzi, are photographers who take pictures 

of athletes, celebrities, politicians, and 

other prominent people usually 

while they are going about normal life routines.

The Earl of Chesterfield, a British political figure, wrote letters to his son to teach him manners and worldly wisdom. Chesterfield’s letters, which were published in 1774, introduced the world etiquette into the English language. Many books on etiquette were published in Great Britain and in the United States during the 1800’s and 1900’s.

Related articles: Form of Address, Baldassare Castiglione, and Earl of Chesterfield Chesterfield    

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